Processing Techniques affects the Vitamin Quality of Edible Insects – Potential for Use in Complementary Foods
International Research Journal of Pure and Applied Chemistry,
Page 35-46
DOI:
10.9734/irjpac/2022/v23i330465
Abstract
Aims: To assess the vitamin content of locusts, lake flies, grasshoppers, and termites when fresh, sun-dried, oven-dried, and defatted.
Study Design: Whole insect samples were sun-dried and oven-dried. Due to their high-fat content, termites and grasshoppers were subjected to an additional defatting step after the sun-drying and oven-drying.
Place and Duration of Study: The study was carried out in Kenyatta University's food science lab from August to December 2020.
Methodology: Prepared insect samples were ground and analyzed for vitamins using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Analysis was done in triplicates and results were expressed in mg/100g of dry insect sample.
Results: Fresh insect samples had higher vitamin concentrations compared to the processed samples. For ascorbic acid, there was no significant difference between; a) sun-dried and defatted sun-dried termites (p=0.79), b) oven-dried and defatted oven-dried termites (p=0.51), c) defatted oven-dried and defatted sun-dried grasshoppers (p=0.22) and d) sun-dried, and defatted oven-dried grasshoppers (p=0.59). For thiamine, pyridoxine, riboflavin, and α-tocopherol there was a significant difference for all the samples in all the insects (p<0.0001). For niacin, fresh, sun-dried, oven-dried, and defatted oven-dried termites showed no significant difference in concentration (p=0.22). However, there was a significant difference for the other insects (p<0.0001). For beta-carotene, only oven-dried and sun-dried grasshoppers didn’t significantly differ (p=0.76). Degradation for water-soluble vitamins was highest in sun-dried samples, while fat-soluble vitamins were highest in oven-dried samples.
Conclusion: Fresh insects contain vitamins that meet the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) values for children up to 36 months, except for beta-carotene. Processing significantly reduces the vitamin levels to below RDA values except for ascorbic acid, thiamine, and alpha-tocopherol in lake flies and termites, which can be used to formulate complementary foods to meet 100% of the RDA.
Keywords:
- Termites
- locusts
- grasshoppers
- lake flies
- vitamins
- degradation
How to Cite
Wambui, V., Nyambaka, H., Kimiywe, J., & Tanga, C. (2022). Processing Techniques affects the Vitamin Quality of Edible Insects – Potential for Use in Complementary Foods. International Research Journal of Pure and Applied Chemistry, 23(3), 35-46. https://doi.org/10.9734/irjpac/2022/v23i330465
References
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Kopittke PM, Menzies NW, Wang P, McKenna BA, Lombi E. Soil and the intensification of agriculture for global food security. Environ Int. 2019;132:105078.
Satterthwaite D, McGranahan G, Tacoli C. Urbanization and its implications for food and farming. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci. 2010;365(1554):2809–2820.
Müller O, Krawinkel M. Malnutrition and health in developing countries. Cmaj. 2005;173(3):279–286.
Wemakor A, Garti H, Azongo T, Garti H, Atosona A. Young maternal age is a risk factor for child undernutrition in Tamale Metropolis, Ghana. BMC Res Notes. 2018;11.
Bwibo NO, Neumann CG. The Need for Animal Source Foods by Kenyan Children. J Nutr. 2003;133(11):3936S-3940S.
Biesalski HK, Black RE, Koletzko B. Hidden Hunger: malnutrition and the first 1,000 days of life: causes, consequences and solutions. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers.
Nestel P, Briend A, de Benoist B, Decker E, Ferguson E, Fontaine O, et al. Complementary Food Supplements to Achieve Micronutrient Adequacy for Infants and Young Children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003;36(3):316–328.
Gahukar R. Entomophagy and human food security. Int J Trop Insect Sci. 2011; 31:129–144.
Lang T, Barling D. Food security and food sustainability: reformulating the debate. Geogr J. 2012;178(4):313–326.
Huis A van. Edible insects: future prospects for food and feed security. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Van Huis A, Oonincx DGAB. The environmental sustainability of insects as food and feed. A review. Agron Sustain Dev. 2017;37(5):43.
Amit SK, Uddin MdM, Rahman R, Islam SMRR, Khan MS. A review on mechanisms and commercial aspects of food preservation and processing. Agric Food Secur. 2017;6(1):1–22.
Abraha B, Admassu H, Mahmud A, Tsighe N, Shui X, Fang Y. Effect of processing methods on nutritional and physico-chemical composition of fish: a review. Food Process Technol. 2018;6(4):376–382.
Halver JE. The Vitamins. Fish Nutrition. 2003. Elsevier. p. 61–141.
Ferguson TI, Emery S, Price-Davies R, Cosslett AG. A review of stability issues associated with vitamins in parenteral nutrition. Clin Nutr ESPEN. 2014;9(2):e49–e53.
Horwitz W. Official methods of analysis of AOAC International. Volume I, agricultural chemicals, contaminants, drugs/edited by William Horwitz. Gaithersburg (Maryland): AOAC International; 1997.
Peris-Vicente J, Esteve-Romero J, Carda-Broch S. Validation of Analytical Methods Based on Chromatographic Techniques: An Overview. Analytical Separation Science. 2015. American Cancer Society. p. 1757–1808.
Sami R, Li Y, Qi B, Wang S, Zhang Q, Han F, et al. HPLC Analysis of Water-Soluble Vitamins (B2, B3, B6, B12, and C) and Fat-Soluble Vitamins (E, K, D, A, and β-Carotene) of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus). J Chem. 2014;2014:1–6.
Ismail A, journal of Nutrition SC-M, undefined 2003. Determination of vitamin C, β-carotene and riboflavin contents in five green vegetables organically and conventionally grown. Citeseer. 2003;9(1): 31–39.
Ravisankar P, Navya CN, Pravallika D, Sri DN. A review on step-by-step analytical method validation. IOSR J Pharm. 2015;5(10):7–19.
Kinyuru JN, Kenji G, Muhoho SN, Ayieko M. Nutritional potential of longhorn grasshopper (ruspoliadifferens) consumed in Siaya district, Kenya. 2010.
Mohamed E. Determination of Nutritive Value of the Edible migratory locust Locusta migratoria, Linnaeus, 1758 (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Int J Adv Pharm Biol Chem. 2015;4:144–148.
Okedi J. Lake flies in Lake Victoria: Their biomass and potential for use in animal feeds. Int J Trop Insect Sci. 1992;13(1):137–144.
Rahman A, Rehman M, Gadahi J, Tariq M. Studies on the Evaluation of Moisture and Ash Content in Kamori, Pateri and Tapri Goat Meat. Int J Agro Vet Med Sci. 2012;6:62–68.
Quasem JM, Mazahreh AS, Al-Shawabkeh AF. Nutritive Value of Seven Varieties of Meat Products (Sausage) Produced in Jordan. Pak J Nutr. 2009;8(4):332–334.
Pellissery AJ, Vinayamohan PG, Amalaradjou MAR, Venkitanarayanan K. Spoilage bacteria and meat quality. Meat Quality Analysis: Advanced Evaluation Methods, Techniques, and Technologies. 2019. p. 307–334.
Rawat S. Food Spoilage: Microorganisms and their prevention. J Plant Sci Res. 2015;5(4):47–56.
Ntukuyoh AI, Udiong DS, Ikpe E, Akpakpan A. Evaluation of nutritional value of termites (macrotermes bellicosus): Soldiers, workers, and queen in the niger delta region of nigeria. Int J Food Nutr Saf. 2012;1:60–65.
Williams JP, Williams JR, Kirabo A, Chester D, Peterson M. Nutrient Content and Health Benefits of Insects. Insects as Sustainable Food Ingredients. 2016. Elsevier. p. 61–84.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Guidance for the validation of analytical methodology and calibration of equipment used for testing of illicit drugs in seized materials and biological specimens. 2009.
Sasaki K, Hatate H, Tanaka R. Determination of 13 Vitamin B and the Related Compounds Using HPLC with UV Detection and Application to Food Supplements. Chromatographia. 2020;83(7):839–851.
Klejdus B, Petrlová J, Potěšil D, Adam V, Mikelová R, Vacek J, et al. Simultaneous determination of water- and fat-soluble vitamins in pharmaceutical preparations by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detection. Anal Chim Acta. 2004;520(1–2):57–67.
Streiner DL, Norman GR. “Precision” and “accuracy”: two terms that are neither. J Clin Epidemiol. 2006;59(4):327–330.
Katsa M, Papalouka N, Mavrogianni T, Papagiannopoulou I, Kostakis M, Proestos C, et al. Comparative Study for the Determination of Fat-Soluble Vitamins in Rice Cereal Baby Foods Using HPLC-DAD and UHPLC-APCI-MS/MS. Foods. 2021;10(3).
Gebregziabher BS, Zhang S, Qi J, Azam M, Ghosh S, Feng Y, et al. Simultaneous Determination of Carotenoids and Chlorophylls by the HPLC-UV-VIS Method in Soybean Seeds. Agronomy. 2021;11(4).
Odriozolaserrano I, Hernandezjover T, Martinbelloso O. Comparative evaluation of UV-HPLC methods and reducing agents to determine vitamin C in fruits. Food Chem. 2007;105(3):1151–1158.
Wall MM. Ascorbic acid, vitamin A, and mineral composition of banana (Musa sp.) and papaya (Carica papaya) cultivars grown in Hawaii. J Food Compos Anal. 2006;19(5):434–445.
Melfi MT, Nardiello D, Cicco N, Candido V, Centonze D. Simultaneous determination of water- and fat-soluble vitamins, lycopene and beta-carotene in tomato samples and pharmaceutical formulations: Double injection single run by reverse-phase liquid chromatography with UV detection. J Food Compos Anal. 2018; 70:9–17.
Trang H. Development of HPLC methods for the determination of water-soluble vitamins in pharmaceuticals and fortified food products. Theses. 2013.
Banjo A, Lawal O, Songonuga E. The nutritional value of fourteen species of edible insects in southwestern Nigeria. Afr J Biotechnol. 2006;5(3):298–301.
Chambial S, Dwivedi S, Shukla KK, John PJ, Sharma P. Vitamin C in Disease Prevention and Cure: An Overview. Indian J Clin Biochem. 2013;28(4):314–328.
Finke MD. Complete nutrient content of four species of commercially available feeder insects fed enhanced diets during growth. Zoo Biol. 2015;34(6):554–564.
Rowe S, Carr AC. Global Vitamin C Status and Prevalence of Deficiency: A Cause for Concern? Nutr 2020 Vol 12 Page 2008. 2020;12(7):2008.
Bukkens SG. Insects in the human diet: nutritional aspects. Ecol Implic Minilivestock Potential Insects Rodents Frogs Snails. 2005;545–577.
Atowa CO, Okoro BC, Umego EC, Atowa AO, Emmanuel O, Ude VC, et al. Nutritional values of Zonocerus variegatus, Macrotermes bellicosus and Cirina forda insects: Mineral composition, fatty acids and amino acid profiles. Sci Afr. 2021;12:e00798.
Allen LH. B Vitamins in Breast Milk: Relative Importance of Maternal Status and Intake, and Effects on Infant Status and function. Adv Nutr. 2012;3(3):362–369.
Tobergte DR, Curtis S. Vitamin and mineral requirements in human nutrition. J Chem Inf Model. 2013;53(9):1689–1699.
Al-Ani MR. A Review of: “Vitamins in Foods/Analysis, Bioavailability, and Stability”. Int J Food Prop. 2006;9(4):927–928.
Combs GF, McClung JP. The Vitamins: Fundamental Aspects in Nutrition and Health. Elsevier Science.
Baj T, Sieniawska E. Chapter 13 - Vitamins. In: Badal S, Delgoda R, editors. Pharmacognosy. Boston: Academic Press. 2017:281–292.
Ott DB. The effect of packaging on vitamin stability in cereal grain products—A review. J Food Compos Anal. 1988;1(2):189–201.
Cantó C, Menzies K, Auwerx J. NAD+ metabolism and the control of energy homeostasis - a balancing act between mitochondria and the nucleus. Cell Metab. 2015;22(1):31–53.
Pegg R, Eitenmiller R. Vitamin Analysis. 2017. p. 361–370.
McCormick DB. Vitamins, Structure and Function of. In: Meyers RA, editor. Encyclopedia of Molecular Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine. 2006. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. p. mcb.200400014.
Sabliov C, Fronczek C, Astete C, Khachaturyan M, Khachatryan L, Leonardi C. Effects of Temperature and UV Light on Degradation of ??-Tocopherol in Free and Dissolved Form. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 2009;86:895–902.
Lee GY, Han SN. The Role of Vitamin E in Immunity. Nutrients. 2018;10(11):1614.
Zong G, Scott AE, Griffiths HR, Zock PL, Dietrich T, Newson RS. Serum α-Tocopherol Has a Nonlinear Inverse Association with Periodontitis among US Adults. J Nutr. 2015;145(5):893–899.
Lewis ED, Meydani SN, Wu D. Regulatory role of vitamin E in the immune system and inflammation. IUBMB Life. 2019;71(4):487–494.
Kiremire BT, Musinguzi E, Kikafunda J, Lukwago F. Effects of vegetable drying techniques on nutrient content: a case study of south-western Uganda. Afr J Food Agric Nutr Dev. 2010;10.
Blossner M, De Onis M, Prüss-Üstün A. Malnutrition: quantifying the health impact at national and local levels. World Health Organization.
World Health Organization. The state of food security and nutrition in the world 2020: transforming food systems for affordable healthy diets. Food & Agriculture Org.
Kopittke PM, Menzies NW, Wang P, McKenna BA, Lombi E. Soil and the intensification of agriculture for global food security. Environ Int. 2019;132:105078.
Satterthwaite D, McGranahan G, Tacoli C. Urbanization and its implications for food and farming. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci. 2010;365(1554):2809–2820.
Müller O, Krawinkel M. Malnutrition and health in developing countries. Cmaj. 2005;173(3):279–286.
Wemakor A, Garti H, Azongo T, Garti H, Atosona A. Young maternal age is a risk factor for child undernutrition in Tamale Metropolis, Ghana. BMC Res Notes. 2018;11.
Bwibo NO, Neumann CG. The Need for Animal Source Foods by Kenyan Children. J Nutr. 2003;133(11):3936S-3940S.
Biesalski HK, Black RE, Koletzko B. Hidden Hunger: malnutrition and the first 1,000 days of life: causes, consequences and solutions. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers.
Nestel P, Briend A, de Benoist B, Decker E, Ferguson E, Fontaine O, et al. Complementary Food Supplements to Achieve Micronutrient Adequacy for Infants and Young Children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003;36(3):316–328.
Gahukar R. Entomophagy and human food security. Int J Trop Insect Sci. 2011; 31:129–144.
Lang T, Barling D. Food security and food sustainability: reformulating the debate. Geogr J. 2012;178(4):313–326.
Huis A van. Edible insects: future prospects for food and feed security. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Van Huis A, Oonincx DGAB. The environmental sustainability of insects as food and feed. A review. Agron Sustain Dev. 2017;37(5):43.
Amit SK, Uddin MdM, Rahman R, Islam SMRR, Khan MS. A review on mechanisms and commercial aspects of food preservation and processing. Agric Food Secur. 2017;6(1):1–22.
Abraha B, Admassu H, Mahmud A, Tsighe N, Shui X, Fang Y. Effect of processing methods on nutritional and physico-chemical composition of fish: a review. Food Process Technol. 2018;6(4):376–382.
Halver JE. The Vitamins. Fish Nutrition. 2003. Elsevier. p. 61–141.
Ferguson TI, Emery S, Price-Davies R, Cosslett AG. A review of stability issues associated with vitamins in parenteral nutrition. Clin Nutr ESPEN. 2014;9(2):e49–e53.
Horwitz W. Official methods of analysis of AOAC International. Volume I, agricultural chemicals, contaminants, drugs/edited by William Horwitz. Gaithersburg (Maryland): AOAC International; 1997.
Peris-Vicente J, Esteve-Romero J, Carda-Broch S. Validation of Analytical Methods Based on Chromatographic Techniques: An Overview. Analytical Separation Science. 2015. American Cancer Society. p. 1757–1808.
Sami R, Li Y, Qi B, Wang S, Zhang Q, Han F, et al. HPLC Analysis of Water-Soluble Vitamins (B2, B3, B6, B12, and C) and Fat-Soluble Vitamins (E, K, D, A, and β-Carotene) of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus). J Chem. 2014;2014:1–6.
Ismail A, journal of Nutrition SC-M, undefined 2003. Determination of vitamin C, β-carotene and riboflavin contents in five green vegetables organically and conventionally grown. Citeseer. 2003;9(1): 31–39.
Ravisankar P, Navya CN, Pravallika D, Sri DN. A review on step-by-step analytical method validation. IOSR J Pharm. 2015;5(10):7–19.
Kinyuru JN, Kenji G, Muhoho SN, Ayieko M. Nutritional potential of longhorn grasshopper (ruspoliadifferens) consumed in Siaya district, Kenya. 2010.
Mohamed E. Determination of Nutritive Value of the Edible migratory locust Locusta migratoria, Linnaeus, 1758 (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Int J Adv Pharm Biol Chem. 2015;4:144–148.
Okedi J. Lake flies in Lake Victoria: Their biomass and potential for use in animal feeds. Int J Trop Insect Sci. 1992;13(1):137–144.
Rahman A, Rehman M, Gadahi J, Tariq M. Studies on the Evaluation of Moisture and Ash Content in Kamori, Pateri and Tapri Goat Meat. Int J Agro Vet Med Sci. 2012;6:62–68.
Quasem JM, Mazahreh AS, Al-Shawabkeh AF. Nutritive Value of Seven Varieties of Meat Products (Sausage) Produced in Jordan. Pak J Nutr. 2009;8(4):332–334.
Pellissery AJ, Vinayamohan PG, Amalaradjou MAR, Venkitanarayanan K. Spoilage bacteria and meat quality. Meat Quality Analysis: Advanced Evaluation Methods, Techniques, and Technologies. 2019. p. 307–334.
Rawat S. Food Spoilage: Microorganisms and their prevention. J Plant Sci Res. 2015;5(4):47–56.
Ntukuyoh AI, Udiong DS, Ikpe E, Akpakpan A. Evaluation of nutritional value of termites (macrotermes bellicosus): Soldiers, workers, and queen in the niger delta region of nigeria. Int J Food Nutr Saf. 2012;1:60–65.
Williams JP, Williams JR, Kirabo A, Chester D, Peterson M. Nutrient Content and Health Benefits of Insects. Insects as Sustainable Food Ingredients. 2016. Elsevier. p. 61–84.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Guidance for the validation of analytical methodology and calibration of equipment used for testing of illicit drugs in seized materials and biological specimens. 2009.
Sasaki K, Hatate H, Tanaka R. Determination of 13 Vitamin B and the Related Compounds Using HPLC with UV Detection and Application to Food Supplements. Chromatographia. 2020;83(7):839–851.
Klejdus B, Petrlová J, Potěšil D, Adam V, Mikelová R, Vacek J, et al. Simultaneous determination of water- and fat-soluble vitamins in pharmaceutical preparations by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detection. Anal Chim Acta. 2004;520(1–2):57–67.
Streiner DL, Norman GR. “Precision” and “accuracy”: two terms that are neither. J Clin Epidemiol. 2006;59(4):327–330.
Katsa M, Papalouka N, Mavrogianni T, Papagiannopoulou I, Kostakis M, Proestos C, et al. Comparative Study for the Determination of Fat-Soluble Vitamins in Rice Cereal Baby Foods Using HPLC-DAD and UHPLC-APCI-MS/MS. Foods. 2021;10(3).
Gebregziabher BS, Zhang S, Qi J, Azam M, Ghosh S, Feng Y, et al. Simultaneous Determination of Carotenoids and Chlorophylls by the HPLC-UV-VIS Method in Soybean Seeds. Agronomy. 2021;11(4).
Odriozolaserrano I, Hernandezjover T, Martinbelloso O. Comparative evaluation of UV-HPLC methods and reducing agents to determine vitamin C in fruits. Food Chem. 2007;105(3):1151–1158.
Wall MM. Ascorbic acid, vitamin A, and mineral composition of banana (Musa sp.) and papaya (Carica papaya) cultivars grown in Hawaii. J Food Compos Anal. 2006;19(5):434–445.
Melfi MT, Nardiello D, Cicco N, Candido V, Centonze D. Simultaneous determination of water- and fat-soluble vitamins, lycopene and beta-carotene in tomato samples and pharmaceutical formulations: Double injection single run by reverse-phase liquid chromatography with UV detection. J Food Compos Anal. 2018; 70:9–17.
Trang H. Development of HPLC methods for the determination of water-soluble vitamins in pharmaceuticals and fortified food products. Theses. 2013.
Banjo A, Lawal O, Songonuga E. The nutritional value of fourteen species of edible insects in southwestern Nigeria. Afr J Biotechnol. 2006;5(3):298–301.
Chambial S, Dwivedi S, Shukla KK, John PJ, Sharma P. Vitamin C in Disease Prevention and Cure: An Overview. Indian J Clin Biochem. 2013;28(4):314–328.
Finke MD. Complete nutrient content of four species of commercially available feeder insects fed enhanced diets during growth. Zoo Biol. 2015;34(6):554–564.
Rowe S, Carr AC. Global Vitamin C Status and Prevalence of Deficiency: A Cause for Concern? Nutr 2020 Vol 12 Page 2008. 2020;12(7):2008.
Bukkens SG. Insects in the human diet: nutritional aspects. Ecol Implic Minilivestock Potential Insects Rodents Frogs Snails. 2005;545–577.
Atowa CO, Okoro BC, Umego EC, Atowa AO, Emmanuel O, Ude VC, et al. Nutritional values of Zonocerus variegatus, Macrotermes bellicosus and Cirina forda insects: Mineral composition, fatty acids and amino acid profiles. Sci Afr. 2021;12:e00798.
Allen LH. B Vitamins in Breast Milk: Relative Importance of Maternal Status and Intake, and Effects on Infant Status and function. Adv Nutr. 2012;3(3):362–369.
Tobergte DR, Curtis S. Vitamin and mineral requirements in human nutrition. J Chem Inf Model. 2013;53(9):1689–1699.
Al-Ani MR. A Review of: “Vitamins in Foods/Analysis, Bioavailability, and Stability”. Int J Food Prop. 2006;9(4):927–928.
Combs GF, McClung JP. The Vitamins: Fundamental Aspects in Nutrition and Health. Elsevier Science.
Baj T, Sieniawska E. Chapter 13 - Vitamins. In: Badal S, Delgoda R, editors. Pharmacognosy. Boston: Academic Press. 2017:281–292.
Ott DB. The effect of packaging on vitamin stability in cereal grain products—A review. J Food Compos Anal. 1988;1(2):189–201.
Cantó C, Menzies K, Auwerx J. NAD+ metabolism and the control of energy homeostasis - a balancing act between mitochondria and the nucleus. Cell Metab. 2015;22(1):31–53.
Pegg R, Eitenmiller R. Vitamin Analysis. 2017. p. 361–370.
McCormick DB. Vitamins, Structure and Function of. In: Meyers RA, editor. Encyclopedia of Molecular Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine. 2006. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. p. mcb.200400014.
Sabliov C, Fronczek C, Astete C, Khachaturyan M, Khachatryan L, Leonardi C. Effects of Temperature and UV Light on Degradation of ??-Tocopherol in Free and Dissolved Form. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 2009;86:895–902.
Lee GY, Han SN. The Role of Vitamin E in Immunity. Nutrients. 2018;10(11):1614.
Zong G, Scott AE, Griffiths HR, Zock PL, Dietrich T, Newson RS. Serum α-Tocopherol Has a Nonlinear Inverse Association with Periodontitis among US Adults. J Nutr. 2015;145(5):893–899.
Lewis ED, Meydani SN, Wu D. Regulatory role of vitamin E in the immune system and inflammation. IUBMB Life. 2019;71(4):487–494.
Kiremire BT, Musinguzi E, Kikafunda J, Lukwago F. Effects of vegetable drying techniques on nutrient content: a case study of south-western Uganda. Afr J Food Agric Nutr Dev. 2010;10.
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